Task 2 : Reading Comprehension Part 2

Question 1-10 refer to the following passage.

This rapid transcontinental settlement and these new urban industrial circumstances of the last half of the 19“’ century were accompanied by the development of a national literature of great abundance and variety. Line New themes, new forms, new subjects, new regions, new authors, new audiences all emerged in the literature of this half century. As a result, at the onset of World War I, the spirit and substance of American literature had evolved remarkably, just as its center of production had shifted from Boston to New York In the late 1880s and the sources of its energy to Chicago and the Midwest. No longer was it produced, at least in its popular forms, in the main by solemn, typically moralistic men from New England and the Old South; no longer were polite, well-dressed, grammatically correct, middle-class young people the only central characters in its narratives no longer were these narratives to be set in exotic places and remote times; no longer, indeed, were fiction, poetry, drama, and formal history the chief acceptable forms of literary expression; no longer, finally, was literature read primarily by young, middle class women. In sum, American literature in these years fulfilled in considerable measure the condition Walt Whitman called for inl867 in describing Leaves of Grass: It treats, he said of his own major work, each state and region as peers “and expands from them, and includes the world … connecting an American citizen with the citizens of all nations.” At the same time, these years saw the emergence of what has been designated “the literature of argument,” powerful works in sociology, philosophy, psychology, many of them impelled by the spirit of exposure and reform. Just as America learned to play a role in this half century as an autonomous international political, economic, and military power, so did its literature establish itself as a producer of major works.

1. The main idea of this passage is …

(A) that the new American literature was less provincial than the old
(B) that World War I caused a dramatic change in America
(C) that centers of culture shifted from East to West
(D) that most people were wary of the new literature

Answer : (A) that the new American literature was less provincial

2. It can be inferred from lines 1-3 that the previous passage probably discussed …

(A) the Importance of tradition to writers
(B) new developments in industrialization and population shifts
(C) the fashions and values of 19th century America
(D) the limitations of American literature to this time

Answer : (B) new developments In Industrialization and population shifts

3. The word “evolved” is closest in meaning to…

(A) became famous
(B) turned back
(C) diminished
(D) changed

Answer : (D) changed

4. The word “it” refers to…

(A) the population
(B) the energy
(C) American literature
(D) the manufacturing

Answer : (C) American literature Keyword: the spirit and substance of American literature

5. The word “exotic” is closest in meaning to…

(A) urban
(B) unusual
(C) well-known
(D) old-fashioned

Answer : (B) unusual Keyword Pembahasan

6. The author uses the word “indeed” for what purpose?

(A) to emphasize the contrast he is making
(B) for variety in a lengthy paragraph
(C) to wind down his argument
(D) to show a favorable attitude to these forms of literature

Answer : (A) to emphasize the contrast he is making

7. The phrase “these years” in line 17 refers to …

(A) 1850-1900
(B) the 1900s
(C) the early 1800s
(D) the present

Answer : (A) 1850-1900

8. It can be inferred from the passage that Walt Whitman…

(A) disliked urban life
(B) was disapproving of the new literature
(C) wrote Leaves of Grass
(D) was an international diplomat

Answer : (C) wrote Leaves of Grass

9. All of the following can be inferred from the passage about the new literature EXCEPT…

(A) it was not highly regarded Internationally
(B) it introduced new american themes, characters, and settings
(C) itbrokewithmanyliterarytraditionsofthepast
(D) it spoke to the issue of reform and change

Answer : (A) ft was not highly regarded internationally

10. This passage would probably be read in which of the following academic courses?

(A) European history
(B) American literature
(C) Current events
(D) International affairs

Answer : (B) American literature

Question 11-15

Robert Moog was an American inventor who developed the Moog Synthesizer. It was one of the first synthesizers to gain widespread use as a musical instrument. Moog’s synthesizers were an important pa Line of musical innovation in rock and jazz music in the 1960s and 1970s. Robert Arthur Moog was born in Queens, a borough of New York City 75 years ago. He became fascinated with electronics as a teenager, particularly an early electronic music instrument called the theremin. Moog studied physic and electrical engineering at Queens College and Columbia University, both in New York City and later received a Ph.D. in engineering physic Cornel University in Ithaca, New York. In 1954, while still an undergraduate student, Moog formed his own company to sell theremins and theremin kits.

Soon after, Moog began working on a keyboard instrument that could replicate the sound of any musical instrument electronically. Working with American composer Herbert Deutsch, Moog introduced the prototype Moog Synthesizer at a convention in 1964. The device represented a significant advance over previous electronic synthesizer because of its use of new semiconductor technology, which made it smaller and considerably cheaper than earlier machines. The Moog, as it was known, was soon in demand by musician all over the world.

In 1964, Moog began a collaboration with American composer and organist Walter Carlos (now Wendy Carlos), who released the bestselling electronic music album Switched-On Bach in 1968. Rock groups such as the Beatles and Yes and jazz musicians such as Herbie Hancock and Chick Corea began incorporating Moog Synthesizer into their recordings, a trend that increased when the company introduced the compact and portable Minimoog in 1970. A Moog Synthesizer was also prominently featured on the soundtrack to the movie A Clockwork Orange in 1971. Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2008

11. The word “prominently” in paragraph 3 can easily be replaced by …

(A) significantly
(B) perfectly
(C) accurately
(D) excellently

Answer : (A) significantly

12. The passage describes theremin as a/an …

(A) prototype of Moog Synthesizer
(B) initial electronic music instrument
(C) musical instrument to replicate the sound
(D) instrument of electronic tool

Answer : (B) initial electronic music instrument

13. The pronoun “it” paragraph 2 refers to…

(A) electronic synthesizer
(B) a keyboard instrument
(C) prototype of Moog Synthesizer
(D) new semiconductor technology

Answer : (C) prototype of Moog Synthesizer

14. According to the passage, all of the following are true about The Moog, EXCEPT…

(A) it was invented by Robert Moog
(B) it was first introduced in 1964
(C) it initiated new technology which was smaller and cheaper than previous
(D) it was the first synthesizer in the world

Answer : (D) it was the first synthesizer in the world

15. The paragraph following the passage most likely discusses…

(A) collaboration between The Moog and other musicians
(B) the description of compact and portable Mini Moog
(C) the improvement of Moog Synthesizer
(D) trend in the music industry about synthesizer

Answer : (C) the improvement of Moog Synthesizer

Question 16-25

There are two basic types of glaciers, those that flow outward in all directions with little regard for any underlying terrain and those that are confined by terrain to a particular path.

The first category of glaciers includes those massive blankets that cover whole continents, appropriately called ice sheets. There must be over 50,000 square kilometers of land covered with ice for the glacier to qualify as an ice sheet. When portions of an ice sheet spread out over the ocean, they form ice shelves.

About 20,000 years ago the Cordilleran Ice Sheet covered nearly all the mountains in southern Alaska, western Canada, and the western United States. It was about 3 kilometers deep at its thickest point in northern Alberta. Now there are only two sheets left on Earth, those covering Greenland and Antarctica.

Any domelike body of ice that also flows out in all directions but covers less than 50,000 square kilometers is called an ice cap. Although ice caps are rare nowadays, there are a number in northeastern Canada, on Baffin Island, and on the Queen Elizabeth Islands.

The second category of glaciers includes those of a variety of shapes and sizes generally called mountain or alpine glaciers. Mountain glaciers are typically identified by the landform that controls their flow. One form of mountain glacier that resembles an ice cap in that it flows outward in several directions is called an ice field. The difference between an ice field and an ice cap is subtle. Essentially, the flow of an ice field is somewhat controlled by surrounding terrain and thus does not have the domelike shape of a cap. There are several ice fields in the Wrangell. St. Elias, and Chugach mountains of Alaska and northern British Columbia.

Less spectacular than large ice fields are the most common types of mountain glaciers: the cirque and valley glaciers. Cirque glaciers are found in depressions in the surface of the land and have a characteristic circular shape. The ice of valley glaciers, bound by terrain, flows down valleys, curves around their corners, and falls over cliffs.

16. What does the passage mainly discuss?
(A)  Where major glaciers are located
(B)  How glaciers shape the land
(C)  How glaciers are formed
(D)  The different kinds of glaciers

Answer : (D) The different kinds of glaciers

17. The word “massive” in line 3 is closest in meaning to
(A)  huge
(B)  strange
(C)  cold
(D)  recent

Answer : (A) huge

18. It can be inferred that ice sheets are so named for which of the following reasons?
(A)  They are confined to mountain valleys.
(B)  They cover large areas of land.
(C)  They are thicker in some areas than in others.
(D)  They have a characteristic circular shape.

Answer : (B) They cover large areas of land.

19. According to the passage, ice shelves can be found
(A)  covering an entire continent
(B)  buried within the mountains
(C)  spreading into the ocean
(D)  filling deep valleys

Answer : (C) spreading into the ocean

20. According to the passage, where was the Cordilleran Ice Sheet thickest?
(A)  Alaska
(B)  Greenland
(C)  Alberta
(D)  Antarctica

Answer : (C) Alberta

21. The word “rare” in line 12 is closest in meaning to
(A)  small
(B)  unusual
(C)  valuable
(D)  widespread

Answer : (B) unusual

22. According to the passage (paragraph 5), ice fields resemble ice caps in which of the following ways?
(A)  Their shape
(B)  Their flow
(C)  Their texture
(D)  Their location

Answer : (B) Their flow

23. The word “it” in line 16 refers to
(A)  glacier
(B)  cap
(C)  difference
(D)  terrain

Answer : (A) glacier

24. The word “subtle” in line 17 is closest in meaning to
(A)  slight
(B)  common
(C)  important
(D)  measurable

Answer : (A) slight

25. All of the following are alpine glaciers EXCEPT
(A)  cirque glaciers
(B)  ice caps
(C)  valley glaciers
(D)  ice fields

Answer : (B) ice caps

Source : http://www.pustakabahasainggris.com/50-contoh-soal-toefl-reading-comprehension-lengkap-dengan-kunci-jawaban-dan-pembahasan-part-b/

http://www.pustakabahasainggris.com/50-contoh-soal-toefl-reading-comprehension-lengkap-dengan-kunci-jawaban-dan-pembahasan-part-a/

http://www.geniustoefl.com/artikel-ilmu-kunci-toefl/artikel/reading-comprehension/contoh-soal-pembahasan-reading-comprehension-tes-toefl

Task 1 : Reading Comprehension Part 1

Questions 1-10 refer to the following passage.

The first two decades of this century were dominated by the microbe hunters. These hunters had tracked down one after another of the microbes responsible for the most dreaded scourges of many centuries: tuberculosis, cholera, diphtheria. But there, remained some terrible diseases for which no microbe could be incriminated: scurvy, pellagra, rickets, beriberi. Then it was discovered that these diseases were caused by the lack of vitamins, a trace substance in the diet. The diseases could be prevented or cured by consuming foods that contained the vitamins. And so in the decades of the 1920’s and 1930’s, nutrition became a science and the vitamin hunters replaced the microbe hunters.
In the 1940’s and 1950’s, biochemists strived to learn why each of the vitamins was essential for health. They discovered that key enzymes in metabolism depend on one or another of the vitamins as coenzymes to perform the chemistry that provides cells with energy for growth and function. Now, these enzyme hunters occupied center stage.
You are aware that the enzyme hunters have been replaced by a new breed of hunters who are tracking genes-the blueprints for each of the enzymes-and are discovering the defective genes that cause inherited diseases-diabetes, cystic fibrosis. These gene hunters, or genetic engineers, use recombinant DNA technology to identify and clone genes and introduce them into bacterial cells and plants to create factories for the massive production of hormones and vaccines for medicine and for better crops for agriculture. Biotechnology has become a multibillion-dollar industry.
In view of the inexorable progress in science, we can expect that the gene hunters will be replaced in the spotlight. When and by whom? Which kind of hunter will dominate the scene in the last decade of our waning century and in the early decades of the next? I wonder whether the hunters who will occupy the spotlight will be neurobiologists who apply the techniques of the enzyme and gene hunters to the functions of the brain: What to call them? The head hunters. I will return to them later.

1. What is the main topic of the passage?
(A)  The microbe hunters
(B)  The potential of genetic engineering
(C)  The progress of modem medical research
(D)  The discovery of enzymes

Answer : (C)  The progress of modem medical research

2. The word “which” in line 4 refers to
(A)  diseases
(B)  microbe
(C)  cholera
(D)  diphtheria

Answer : (A)  diseases

3. The word “incriminated” in line 4 is closest in meaning to
(A)  investigated
(B)  blamed
(C)  eliminated
(D)  produced

Answer : (B)  blamed

4. Which of the following can be cured by a change in diet?
(A)  Tuberculosis
(B)  Cholera
(C)  Cystic fibrosis
(D)  Pellagra

Answer : (D)  Pellagra

5. The word “strived” in line 9 is closest in meaning to
(A)  failed
(B)  tried
(C)  experimented
(D)  studied

Answer : (B)  tried

6. How do vitamins influence health?
(A)  They are necessary for some enzymes to function.
(B)  They protect the body from microbes.
(C)  They keep food from spoiling.
(D)  They are broken down by cells to produce energy.

Answer : (A)  They are necessary for some enzymes to function.

7. In the third paragraph, the author compares cells that have been genetically altered by biotechnicians to
(A)  gardens
(B)  factories
(C)  hunters
(D)  spotlights

Answer : (B)  factories

8. The word “them” in line 16 refers to
(A)  cells and plants
(B)  hormones
(C)  genes
(D)  gene hunters or genetic engineers

Answer : (C)  genes

9. The phrase “occupy the spotlight” in line 22 is closest in meaning to
(A)  receive the most attention
(B)  go the furthest
(C)  conquer territory
(D)  lighten the load

Answer : (A)  receive the most attention

10. The author implies that the most important medical research topic of the future will be
(A)  the functions of the brain
(B)  inherited diseases
(C)  the operation of vitamins
(D)  the structure of genes

Answer : (A)  the functions of the brain

Question 11-20

In the mid-nineteenth century, the United States had tremendous natural resources that could be exploited in order to develop heavy industry. Most of the raw materials that are valuable in the manufacture of machinery, transportation facilities, and consumer goods lay ready to be worked into wealth. Iron, coal, and oil-the basic ingredients of industrial growth-were plentiful and needed only the application of technical expertise, organizational skill, and labor.
One crucial development in this movement toward industrialization was the growth of the railroads. The railway network expanded rapidly until the railroad map of the United States looked like a spider’s web, with the steel filaments connecting all important sources of raw materials, their places of manufacture, and their centers of distribution. The railroads contributed to the industrial growth not only by connecting these major centers, but also by themselves consuming enormous amounts of fuel, iron, and coal.
Many factors influenced emerging modes of production. For example, machine tools, the tools used to make goods, were steadily improved in the latter part of the nineteenth century-always with an eye to speedier production and lower unit costs. The products of the factories were rapidly absorbed by the growing cities that sheltered the workers and the distributors. The increased urban population was nourished by the increased farm production that, in turn, was made more productive by the use of the new farm machinery. American agricultural production kept up with the urban demand and still had surpluses for sale to the industrial centers of Europe.

The labor that ran the factories and built the railways was recruited in part from American farm areas where people were being displaced by farm machinery, in part from Asia, and in part from Europe. Europe now began to send tides of immigrants from eastern and southern Europe-most of whom were originally poor farmers but who settled in American industrial cities. The money to finance this tremendous expansion of the American economy still came from European financiers for the most part, but the Americans were approaching the day when their expansion could be financed in their own “money market.”

13. What does the passage mainly discuss?
(A)  The history of railroads in the United States
(B)  The major United States industrial centers
(C)  Factors that affected industrialization in the United States
(D)  The role of agriculture in the nineteenth century

Answer : (C)  Factors that affected industrialization in the United States

14. The word “ingredients” in line 4 is closest in meaning to
(A)  minerals
(B)  products
(C)  methods
(D)  components

Answer : (D)  components

15.Why does the author mention “a spider’s web” in line 8?
(A)  To emphasize the railroad’s consumption of oil and coal
(B)  To describe the complex structure of the railway system
(C)  To explain the problems brought on by railway expansion
(D)  To describe the difficulties involved in the distribution of raw materials

Answer : (B)  To describe the complex structure of the railway system

16. The word “themselves” in line 10 refers to
(A)  sources
(B)  centers
(C)  railroads
(D)  places

Answer : (C)  railroads

17. According to the passage, all of the following were true of railroads in the United States in the nineteenth century EXCEPT that
(A)  they connected important industrial cities
(B)  they were necessary to the industrialization process
(C)  they were expanded in a short time
(D)  they used relatively small quantities of natural resources

Answer : (D)  they used relatively small quantities of natural resources

18. According to the passage, what was one effect of the improvement of machine tools?
(A)  Lower manufacturing costs
(B)  Better distribution of goods
(C)  More efficient transportation of natural resources
(D)  A reduction in industrial jobs

Answer : (A)  Lower manufacturing costs

19. According to the passage, who were the biggest consumers of manufactured products?
(A)  Railway workers
(B)  Farmers
(C)  City dwellers
(D)  Europeans

Answer : (C)  City dwellers

20. The word “nourished” in line 16 is closest in meaning to
(A)  protected
(B)  fed
(C)  housed
(D)  paid

Answer : (B)  fed

Question 21-25

Awarded the Nobel prize for physics in 1918, German physics Max Planck is best remembered as the originator of the quantum theory. His work helped user in a new era in theoretical physics and revolutionized the scientific community’s understanding of atomic and sub-atomic processes.

Planck intriduced an idea that led to the quantum theory, which became the foundation of twentieth century physics. In December 1900, Plnck worked out an equation that described the distribution of radiation accurately over the range of low to high frequencies. He had developed a theory which depended on a model of matter that seemed very strange at the time. The model required the emission of electromagnetic radiation in small chunks or particles. These particles were later called quantums. The energy associated with each quatum is measured by multiplying the frequency of the radiation, v, by a universal constant, h. Thus, energy, or E, equals hv. The constant, h, is known as Planck’s constant. It is now recognized as one of the fundamental constant of the world.

Planck announced his finding in 1900, but it was years before teh full consequences of his revolutionary quantum theory were recognized. Throughout his life, Planck made significant contributions to optics, thermodynamics and stastistical mechanics, physical chemistry, and other fields. In 1930, He was elected president of the Kaiser Wilhelm society, which was renamed the Max II. Though deeply opposed to the fascist regime of Adolf Hitler, Planck remained in Germany throughout teh war. He died in Gottingen on October 4, 1947.

21.    In which of the following fields did Max Planck NOT make a significant contribution?
(A) Optics
(B) Thermodynamics
(C) Stastistical mechanics
(D) Biology

22.    The word “revolutionary” as used in line 13, means…
(A) Dangerous
(B) Extremist
(C) Momentous
(D) Militarist

23.    It can inferred from the passage that Planck’s work led to the development of which of the following?
(A) The rocket
(B) The atomic bomb
(C) The internal combustion engine
(D) The computer

24.    The particles of electromagnetic radiation given off by matter are known as…
(A) Quantums
(B) Atoms
(C) Electrons
(D) Valences

25.  The word “universal”, as used in line 10 most nearly means…
(A) Planetary
(B) Cosmic
(C) Worldwide

(D) Always present


Sumber : http://www.geniustoefl.com/artikel-ilmu-kunci-toefl/artikel/reading-comprehension/contoh-soal-pembahasan-reading-comprehension-tes-toefl
http://www.belajaringgris.net/contoh-soal-toefl-reading-comprehension-12941.html

Prolog ACL & Review ACL

Prolog Audit Command Language

ACL adalah sebuah software yang dirancang secara khusus untuk menganalisa data dan menghasilkan laporan audit baik untuk pengguna biasa (common/ nontechnical users)  maupun pengguna ahli (expert users).

Manfaat ACL antara lain:

1.  Dapat membantu dalam mengakses data baik langsung (direct) kedalam sistenm jaringan ataupun indirect (tidak langsung) melalui media lain seperti softcopy dalam bentuk text file/report.

2.  Menempatkan kesalahan dan potensial “fraud” sebagai pembanding dan menganalisa file-file menurut aturan-aturan yang ada.

3.   Mengidentifikasi kecenderungan/gejala-gejala, dapat juga menunjukan dengan tepat sasaran pengecualian data dan menyoroti potensial area yang menjadi perhatian.

4.  Mengidentifikasi proses perhitungan kembali dan proses verifikasi yang benar.

5.  Mengidentifkasi persoalan sistem pengawasan dan memastikan terpenuhinya permohonan dengan aturan-aturan yang telah ditetapkan.

6.  Aging dan menganalisa account receivable/payable atau beberapa transaksi lain dengan menggunakan basis waktu yang sensitive.

Review Audit Command Language

·      Kalau untuk auditor sendiri menurut saya, aplikasi Auditor ini akan sangat membantu dalam melaksanakan tugas peng-audit-an secara terfokus, cepat, efisien dan efektif.

·      Dari segi manajemen, ACL juga dapat membantu dalam menganalisis data dan informasi mengenai perusahaan, kalau memang diperuntukan pada profesi akuntung dan keuangan.

·      Untuk SDM atau pemeriksa IT dll, disitu dapat melakukan sistem pelaporan yang sesuai dengan keinginan atau laporan yang diinginkan dengan kualitas serta akurasi yang baik.

·      Berguna juga untuk menemukan berbagai penyelewengan atau pola dalam transaksi yang dapat mengindikasikan adanya kelemahan pengendalian atau kecurangan. Seperti, kecurangan dalam laporan keuangan (missal dilakukan oleh pihak manajemen), korupsi, dan juga penyalahgunaan asset (missal dilakukan oleh karyawan).

·      ACL juga dapat membaca langsung jenis penulisan EBCDIC atau ASCII, sehingga tidak perlu untuk mengkonversi kedalam bentuk yang lain.

·      Sedikit kelemahan karena ACL adalah aplikasi yang hanya bersifat “read only”, maka ACL tidak pernah mengubah data sumber asli sehingga aman untuk menganalisis live data.

·      ACL dapat mengakses data dari hampir semua jenis database yang ada (DBF, XLS, Text File, report file, Oracle, SQL, DB2, AS/400 FDF, COBOL, dsb) dan semua platform (PC, minicomputer, dan mainframe).

·      Kemampuan dalam mengakses dan memproses data dalam jumlah yang sangat besar (hingga ratusan juta record).

·      Kemampuannya untuk memproses dalam waktu yang singkat walaupun data yang diproses dalam jumlah yang besar.

·      Dengan kemampuan mengakses database 100% (tanpa metode sampling) serta data yang bersifat Read Only yang dapat menjamin orisinalitas, keamanan dan integritas data untuk pengolahan menjadi informasi yang bermanfaat bagi user dan manajemen.

·      Pembuatan aplikasi audit yang sangat cepat dan mudah untuk melakukan automasi analisis data untuk efisiensi proses kerja.

·      Dapat digunakan untuk menangani beberapa file sekaligus, tanpa mengganggu operasional teknologi informasi yang dijalankan oleh perusahaan.

·      Dilengkapi dengan log file untuk pencatatan proses analisis yang telah dilakukan sehingga menghasilkan suatu audit trail yang komprehensif.

·      Dilengkapi fungsi-fungsi analisis yang sangat lengkap yang dapat dengan mudah dikombinasikan dalam menghasilkan temuan-temuan yang tidak pernah terkirakan sebelumnya.

·      Kemudahan untuk merancang laporan yang handal sarat informasi yang bermanfaat serta dapat dikirimkan secara otomatis via email atau integrasi ke dalam software aplikasi Crystal Report.

·      Kemudahan dalam menguji integritas data dan menganalisis data yang ada di dalam database ataupun menganalisis user-user yang telah masuk ke dalam suatu jaringan/network.

Strategi Pengujian Perangkat Lunak

Dalam strategi pengujian perangkat lunak, dapat digambarkan dengan ilustrasi berikut: Sebuah perangkat lunak dimulai dari penentuan kebutuhan pernagkat lunak, kemudian proses dilanjutkan kedalam bentuk rancangan dan akhirnya ke pengkodean. Strategi pengujian serupa dengan hal tersebut, dimulai dengan unti testing di pusat spiral di mana masing-masing modul/unit dari perangkat lunak yang diimplementasikan dalam source code menjadi sasaran pengujian. Kemudian dilakukan integration testing dengan focus pengujian adalah desain dan kontruksi arsitektur perangkat lunak. Selanjutnya dilakukan validation testing dengan sasaran pengujian adalah kesesuaian dengan kebutuhan perangkat lunak yang telah ditentukan di awal. Terakhir pada lingkaran terluar spiral samai pada system testing, dimana perangkat lunak dan keseluruhan system diuji.

1.     Pendekatan Strategis ke Pengujian Perangkat lunak

Pengujianmerupakan rangkaian aktivitas yang dapat direncanakan sebelumnya dan dilakukansecara sistematis. Strategi uji coba perangkat lunak memudahkan para perancanguntuk menentukan keberhasilan system yg telah dikerjakan. Hal yg harusdiperhatikan adalah langkah-langkah perencanaan dan pelaksanaan harusdirencanakan dengan baik dan berapa lama waktu, upaya dan sumber daya ygdiperlukan Strategi uji coba mempunyai karakteristik sbb :

·         Pengujian mulai pada tingkat modul yg paling bawah,dilanjutkan dgn modul di atasnya kemudian hasilnya dipadukan

·         Teknik pengujianyang berbeda mungkin menghasilakn sedikit perbedaan (dalam hal waktu)

·         Pengujiandilakukan oleh pengembang perangkat lunak dan (untuk proyek yang besar) suatukelompok pengujian yang independen.

·         Pengujian dandebugging merupakan aktivitas yang berbeda, tetapi debugging termasuk dalamstrategi pengujian.

Verifikasi dan Validasi

Verifikasi dan validasi merupakandua istilah yang sering dikaitkan dengan tahapan pengujian perangkat lunak.Verifikasi mengacu pada serangkaian aktivitas untuk memastikan bahwa perangkatlunak mengimplementasikan fungsi tertentu secara benar, sedangkan validasimengacu pada serangkaian aktivitas untuk memastikan bahwa perangkat lunak yangtelah dibuat sesuai denga kebutuhan konsumen.

Definisi V&V mencakupserangkaian aktivitas dari penjaminan kualitas perangkat lunak (SQA) yangmeliputi kajian teknis formal, audit kualitas dan control, monitoring kinerja,simulasi, studi feasibilitas, kajian dokumentasi, kajian basisdata, analisisalgoritma, pengujian pengembangan, pengujian kualifikasi, dan pengujianinstalasi.

Pengorganisasian Pengujian Perangkat Lunak

Proses pengujian sebuah perangkat lunaksebaiknya melibatkan pihak yang memang secara khusus bertanggung jawab untukmelakukan proses pengujian secara independen. Untuk itulah diperlukanIndependent Test Group (ITG).

Peran dari ITG adalah untuk menghilangkan“conflict of interest” yang terjadi ketika pengembang perangkat lunak berusahauntuk menguji produknya sendiri.

Walaupun seperti itu, sering terjadibeberapa kesalahan pemahaman berkaitan dengan peran ITG, antara lain:

·         Pengembangtidak boleh melakukan pengujian sama sekali. Pendapat ini tidak 100% benar,Karena dalam banyak kasus, pengembang juga melakukan proses unit testing danintegration test.

·         Perangkatlunak dilempar begitu saja untuk diuji secara sporadic. Hal tersebut adalahsalah karena pengemmbang dan ITG bekerja sama pada kesalahan proyek untukmemastikan pengujian akan dilakukan. Sementara pengujian dilakukan, pengembangharrus memperbaiki kesalahan yang ditemukan.

·         Pengujitidak terlibat pada proyek sampai tahap pengujian dimulai. Hal tersebut salahkarena ITG merupakan bagian dari tim proyek pengembangan perangkat lunak dimanaia terlihat selama spesifikasi proses dan tetap terlinat pada keseluruhanproyek besar.

2.     Masalah-Masalah Strategis

Masalah-masalah berikut harus diselesaikanbila pengujian ingin berlangsung sukses:

·      Menspesifikasikan kebutuhan produkpada kelakuan yang terukur sebelum pengujian dimulai. Strategi pengujian yangbaik tidak hanya untuk menenmukan kesalahan, namun juga unutk menilai kualitasprogram.

·      Menspesifikasikan tujuan pengujiansecara eksperangkat lunakisit. Sasaran spesifik dari pengujian harus dinyatakandalam bentuk yang terukur

·      Mengidentifikasikan kategori useruntuk perangkat lunak dan membuat profilnya masing-masing. Beberapa kasus yangmenggambarkan scenario interaksi bagi masing-masing kategori dapat mengurangikerja pengujian dengan memfokuskan pengujian pada penggunaan actual produk.

·      Membangun rencana pengujian yangmenegaskan rapid cycle testing. Umpan balik yang muncul dari rapid cycletesting dapaat digunakan untuk mengontrol kualitas dan strategi pengujian yangsesuai.

·      Membangun perangkat lunak yang tangguhyang dirancang untuk menguji dirinya sendiri. Perangkat lunak dapatmendiagnosis jenis-jenis kesalahan tertentu dan mengakomodasi pengujianotomatis dan pengujian regresi.

·      Menggunakan tinjauan formal yang efektif sebagai filter sebekum pengujian.Kajian teknis formal dapat mengungkap kesalahan seefektif pengujian sehinggadapat mengurangi jumlah kerja pengujian.

·      Mengadakan tinjauan formal dapatmengungkap inkonsistensi, penghapusan, dan kesalahan seketika dalam pendekatanpengujian.

·      Membangun pendekatan yang meningkatsecara berkelanjutan untuk proses pengujian. Strategi pengujian harus terukur.Metric yang terkumpul selama pengujian harus digunakan sebagai bagian daripendekatan control proses statistical bagi pengujian perangkat lunak.

3.     PengujianUnit

Unit testing (uji coba unit) fokusnya pada usahaverifikasi pada unit terkecil dari desain perangkat lunak, yakni modul. Ujicoba unit selalu berorientasi pada white box testing dan dapat dikerjakanparalel ayau beruntun dengan modul lainnya.

PertimbanganPengujian Unit

Interface modul diuji untuk memastikan bahwa informasisecara tepat mengalir masuk dan keluar dari inti program yang diuji. Strukturdata local diuji untuk memastikan bahwa data yang tersimpan secara temporaldapat tetap menjaga integritasnya selama semua langkah langkah di dalamsuatu algoritma dieksekusi. Kondisi batas diuji untuk memastikan bahwa modulberoperasi dengan tepat pada batas yang ditentukan untuk membatasipemrosesan. Semua jalur independen(jalur dasar) yang melalui struktur controldipakai sedikirnya satu kali. Dan akhirnya penanganan kesalan diuji.

Prosedur Pengujian Unit

Sumber telah dikembangkan, ditunjang kembali dandiverifikasi untuk sintaksnya, maka perancangan test case dimulai. Peninjauankembali perancangan informasi akan menyediakan petunjuk untuk menentukan testcase. Karena modul bukan program yg berdiri sendiri maka driver (pengendali)dan atau stub perangkat lunaK harus dikembangkan untuk pengujian unit.

§  Driver adalah program yg menerima data untuk test case dan menyalurkan ke modul yg diuji danmencetak hasilnya.

§  Stub melayanipemindahan modul yg akan dipanggil untuk diuji

4.     Pengujian Integrasi

Pengujian terintegrasi adl teknik yg sistematis untukpenyusunan struktur program, pada saat dikerjakan uji coba untuk memeriksakesalahan yg nantinya digabungkan dengan interface. Metode pengujian:

A. Top down integration

Merupakan pendekatan inkrmental untuk penyusunanstruktur program. Modul dipadukan dgn bergerak ke bawah melalui kontrol hirarkidimulai dari modul utama. Modulsubordinat ke modul kontrol utama digabungkanke dalam struktur baik menurut depth first atau breadth first.

Proses integrasi:

·      Modul utama digunakan sebagai test driver danstub yg menggantikan seluruh modul yg secara langsung berada di bawah modulkontrol utama.

·      Tergantung pada pendekatan perpaduan yg dipilih(depth / breadth)

·      Uji coba dilakukan selama masing-masing moduldipadukan

·      Pada penyelesaian masing-masing uji coba stub yglain dipindahkan dgn modul sebenarnya.

·      Uji coba regression yaitu pengulangan pengujianuntuk mencari kesalahan lain yg mungkin muncul.

B. Buttom up integration

Pengujian buttom up dinyatakan dgn penyusunan ygdimulai dan diujicobakan dgn atomic modul (modul tingkat paling bawah pdstruktur program). Karena modul dipadukan dari bawah ke atas, proses ygdiperlukan untuk modul subordinat yg selalu diberikan harus ada dan diperlukanuntuk stub yg akan dihilangkan.

Strategi pengujian :

·      Modul tingkat bawah digabungkan ke dalam clusteryg memperlihatkan subfungsi perangkat lunak

·      Driver (program kontrol pengujian) ditulisuntuk mengatur input test case dan output

·      Clusterdiuji

·      Driver diganti dan cluster yg dikombinasikandipindahkan ke atas pada struktur program

5.     Pengujian Validasi

Setelah semua kesalahan diperbaiki maka langkahselanjutnya adalah validasi terting. Pengujian validasi dikatakan berhasil bilafungsi yg ada pada perangkat lunak sesuai dgn yg diharapkan pemakai. Validasiperangkat lunak merupakan kumpulan seri uji coba black box yg menunjukkansesuai dgn yg diperlukan.

Kemungkinan kondisi setelah pengujian:

§  Karakteristik performansi fungsi sesuai dgn spesifikasi dan dapat diterima

§  Penyimpangan dari spesifikasi ditemukan dan dibuatkan daftar penyimpangan.

Pengujian ALPHA dan BETA

Apabila PERANGKAT LUNAK dibuat untuk pelanggan makadapat dilakukan aceeptance test sehingga memungkinkan pelanggan untukmemvalidasi seluruh keperluan. Test ini dilakukan karena memungkinkan pelanggan menemukan kesalahan yg lebih rinci danmembiasakan pelanggan memahami PERANGKAT LUNAK yg telah dibuat.

Pengujian Alpha

Dilakukan pada sisi pengembang oleh seorang pelanggan.Perangkat Lunak digunakan pada setting yg natural dgn pengembang “yg memandang”melalui bahu pemakai dan merekam semua kesalahan dan masalah pemakaian

Pengujian Beta

Dilakukan pada satu atau lebih pelanggan oleh pemakaiakhir perangkat lunak dalam lingkungan yg sebenarnya, pengembang biasanya tidakada pada pengujian ini. Pelanggan merekan semua masalah (real atau imajiner) ygditemui selama pengujian dan melaporkan pada pengembang pada interval waktutertentu.

6.     Pengujian Sistem.

Pada akhirnya PERANGKAT LUNAK digabungkan dgn elemensystem lainnya dan rentetan perpaduan system dan validasi tes dilakukan. Jikauji coba gagal atau di luar skope dari proses daur siklus pengembangan system,langkah yg diambil selama perancangan dan pengujian dapat diperbaiki.Keberhasilan perpaduan PERANGKAT LUNAK dan system yg besar merupakan kuncinya.

Sistem testing merupakan rentetan pengujian ygberbeda-beda dgn tujuan utama mengerjakan keseluruhan elemen system ygdikembangkan.

Recovery Testing

Adalah system testing yg memaksa PERANGKAT LUNAK mengalami kegagalan dalam bermacam-macam cara dan apakah perbaikan dilakukandgn tepat.

Security Testing

Adalah pengujian yg akan melalukan verifikasi darimekanisme perlindungan yg akan dibuat oleh system, melindungi dari hal-hal ygmungkin terjadi.

Strees Testing

Dirancang untuk menghadapi situasi yg tidak normalpada saat program diuji. Testing ini dilakukan oleh system untuk kondisi seperti volume data yg tidak normal (melebihiatau kurang dari batasan) atau fekuensi.

7.     Debugging

Debugging bukan merupakanpengujian, namun merupakan konsekuensi dari pengujian yang berhasil. Jikasebuah kasus uji berhasil menemukan kesalahan, maka proses debugging bertujuanuntuk menghilangkan kesalahan tersebut.

Debugging merupakan proses yangsulit untuk dilakukan karena adanya beberapa karakteristik bug seperti:

§  Gejala dan penyebab dari bug bisa saja sangat jauh, gejala dapat muncul pada bagian tertentu dari program dan penyebabnya bisa saja berada pada bagian lain yang sangat jauh dari tempatmunculnya gejala.

§  Gejala dapat hilang ketika kesalahanyang lain diperbaiki

§  Gejala dapat ditimbulkan oleh sesuatu yang tidak salah( misal. Pembulatan yang tidak akurat).

§  Gejala dapat disebabkan oleh masalahtiming.

§  Kemungkinan sulit untuk memproduksi kondisi onput secara akurat.

§  Gejala dapat terjadi tiba-tiba.

§  Gejala dapat disebabkan oleh sesuatu yang didistribusikan melewati sejumlah tugas yang bekerja pada prosesor yang berbeda-beda.